Sections:

• Welcome
• American History
• European History
• Latin American History
• African History

Topics for this Section:

• Greek and Phoenician Colonization
  1. Introduction
  2. Colonies and Emporia
  3. Natural Resources in the Colonial Areas of Mediterranean World
  4. The Focus of Colonization
  5. Colony and Mother City
  6. Summary
• Origins and Movements of Greek Intellectuals
  1. General Introduction
  2. Introduction: Where Were the Greek Intellectuals Active?
  3. BC 800-323
  4. Introduction: Travel and the Exchange of Ideas
  5. Travel of Selected Intellectuals in More Detail
  6. Summary
• Sanctuaries and Diplomacy in the Greek World
  1. General Introduction
  2. Introduction: Olympia
  3. Olympia: 700 BC to 200 AD
  4. Introduction: Delphi
  5. Delphi: 800 BC to 200 AD
  6. Introduction: Nemea
  7. Nemea: 700 BC to 200 AD
  8. Introduction: Isthmia
  9. Isthmia: 700 BC to 200 AD
  10. Introduction: Olympic Victors
  11. Olympic Victors: 776 BC to 369 AD
• Roman Italy in the Republic
  1. Introduction
  2. Roman Expansion in Italy : 509-31 BC
  3. Census Figures: Roman Citizens.
  4. Summary
• Romanization
  1. Introduction
  2. The Romanization of the Western Mediterranean
  3. Elements of Cultural Change
  4. Case Study: the Gallic Provinces
  5. Summary
• Rome and Asia Minor
  1. General Introduction
  2. Introduction to Provincial Structure
  3. Provinces: BC 125-25
  4. Provinces: AD 1-276
  5. Second Introduction: Temples of the Imperial Cult
  6. Temples of the Imperial Cult
  7. Third Introduction: The Minting of Coins
  8. The Minting of Coins
  9. Summary
• Crisis of the 3rd Century
  1. Introduction
  2. AD 15-285
  3. AD 200-285
  4. Some Factors in the Crisis
  5. Other Archaeological Factors
  6. Summary
• Centers of Learning in the Middle Ages
  1. Introduction
  2. University Foundation Privileges
  3. High Medieval Period
  4. Jesuit Centers
  5. Pre-Modern Period
• The Reformation
• Peasant Rebellions in Early Modern Europe
  1. Introduction
  2. 1290-1424
  3. 1425-1549
  4. 1550-1699
  5. 1700-1800
  6. The Peasants' War of 1525
  7. France: 1600-1700
  8. Britain: 1756-1801
• Academies in Early Modern Europe
  1. Introduction
  2. 1650-1700
  3. 1701-1760
  4. 1761-1810
  5. Summary
• Communication and the Postal System in the Early Modern Period
  1. Introduction
  2. 1505-1541
  3. 1570-1610
  4. 1611-1648
  5. 1649-1799
• Spain
  1. Introduction
  2. Natural Resources of the Iberian Peninsula
  3. Ancient Iberia
  4. Germanic Invasions
  5. Visigothic Control
  6. Islamic Spain
  7. Reconquista
• France
• Italy
  1. Introduction
  2. Italy at the End of the Roman Empire
  3. Medieval Conquests of Italy
  4. High Middle Ages to the French Revolution
  5. Napoleonic Era
  6. Unification of Italy
• Russia in the 20th Century
  1. Introduction
  2. 1910-1991
  3. Summary
• The Cold War
  1. Introduction
  2. The Cold War in Europe : 1945-1990
  3. Reunification and Resolution
  4. Summary

Introduction

For two centuries following the death of Augustus (AD 14-235), the Mediterranean world experienced a singular period of peace and stability. Thereafter (AD 235-285), internal conflicts and foreign invasions overwhelmed and nearly destroyed the Empire. The purpose of this module is to illustrate the nature of the crisis and to describe at least some of its causes.

After a few missteps, Augustus organized and stabilized the Roman frontier. Subsequent Roman emperors made incremental additions on the periphery. Legionary camps, which were established along the Rhine and Danube and on the Syrian frontier, provided effective and steady defenses for the Empire. Population and productivity of the Roman Empire reached heights that would not be seen again until the Early Modern period. Moreover, the subject peoples of Europe began to "Romanize", acquiring the Latin language and the trappings of Roman urban culture. For the most part power passed peacefully from one emperor to another. Beyond the frontier, barbarian tribes also remained stable and quiescent.

By the mid 3rd Century, the Augustan system had broken down. Barbarian tribes penetrated the Empire at many points. Legions and their commanders became more interested in "emperor-making" than in "empire-defending". In these power struggles few emperors died a natural death. When the central government proved unable to defend the empire against both internal and external enemies, the provincials broke away and established their own regional imperial systems producing the Gallic Empire in the west and the kingdom of Palmyra in the East. Only after AD 285 did Diocletian and Constantine succeed in re-establishing a degree of order and stability. Though the Empire survived the crisis, it was transformed.

Section 1 examines border / defenses of the Empire from the death of Augustus (AD14) until the death of Severus Alexander (235).

Section 2 explores the nature of the turmoil during the 3rd century in more detail. In particular, the focus is on two issues; the growing barbarian pressures on Rome's frontier, and the increasingly chaotic imperial structure. These maps show the major barbarian incursions and note also the progressive abandonment of Roman frontier territory on the Rhine and Danube. They also show the fate of individual emperors from Septimius Severus to Diocletian, almost all of whom were killed by their own troops.

Section 3 explores graphically some factors (both internal and external) that fed the crisis. Finally, we offer a model that helps to explain the nature of the crisis.